Introduction

This report presents a comprehensive analysis of Eswatini sovereignty using the methodology of the Burke Institute. Sovereignty is assessed in 7 areas: political, economic, technological, informational, cultural, cognitive and military. Each aspect is assessed on the basis of official data from international and national sources (UN, World Bank, UNESCO, IMF, ITU, FAO, SIPRI, PISA, etc.) without using politicized indexes. The maximum score in each direction is 100; the sum (up to 700) is the accumulated Sovereignty Index (Burke Index).

To adapt and adjust statistical parameters, an international expert survey was conducted for each of the seven components using a single questionnaire of 10 questions with a 10-point scale and one open-ended question.

In total, at least 100 experts from 50+ countries were interviewed for each indicator, taking into account geographical representation and specialization. When calculating and analyzing the data, equalizing coefficients were used, bringing all data to a scale of 0-10 points.

The final index value is the arithmetic mean between statistical data and expert estimates.

Below is an analysis in each area, a summary table and the main conclusions about the specific features of Eswatini sovereignty.

Political sovereignty — 45.8

Eswatini is a member of the United Nations, the African Union (AU), the Commonwealth, the SADC (Southern African Development Community), COMESA, the WTO, the World Bank, the IMF, the International The labor organization, the Peace and Security Council of South Africa (2025-2028), participates in regional forums and a number of specialized agencies. Eswatini adheres to a dualistic system: international treaties have no direct effect and require ratification and/or a special law for implementation.

The Constitution and national laws always prevail, and Parliament approves the implementation of international agreements; if the norms contradict the Constitution, national law applies. The system is an absolute monarchy (King Mswati III). In 2024-2025, political and security are officially assessed as "stable", but independent reports record: protests, dissatisfaction with the level of democracy, harsh suppression of opposition demonstrations, high tension after the murder of human rights defender Tulani Maseko and mass detentions.

The country regularly receives low scores on freedoms/human rights (Freedom House — 17 points out of 100, "not free"). The WGI 2024 Government Effectiveness index is approximately the 32nd—36th percentile (worse than 2/3 of countries); problems with corruption, public services, weak project implementation of government programs, complaints about poor infrastructure quality. EGDI is very low: ~0.376 (2022), ranked 159th in the world, most public services are not digitized, implementation is slow, and electronic document management is poorly developed.

The public level of trust in King Mswati III and the absolute monarchy is low; protests against the government, reform movements, and harsh responses to opposition actions are recorded. The transparency of the government is low, and support is based on traditional clan loyalty and royal structures, but public criticism is growing.

There are no foreign military bases; the army, police and security services are completely national. Verified by open military and diplomatic sources. Eswatini does not recognize the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (the Rome Statute has not been ratified), participates in certain regional African judicial platforms; international jurisdiction is limited, the main cases are considered in local courts or the SADC Tribunal.

The system is completely centralized: the king has all the real power, parliament is partially appointed from above, and traditional councils perform auxiliary functions. The degree of decentralization is minimal, and the regions do not have independent budgetary or administrative policies.

The power over the special services and security forces (the state security service, the police, the army) is completely concentrated with the king; there is no parliamentary or judicial control; reporting is not public, activities are regulated by decrees of the monarch and a small circle of close associates.

Data completeness assessment: the main indicators are available from international sources, the coverage is 92%.

Economic sovereignty — 49.2

GDP per capita (PPP, 2025) — $10,900–13,730 (World Bank, IMF, Trading Economics). Reserves amount to 9.4 billion yen (May 2025), which is approximately $500 million (exchange rate ~19 SZL/USD); cover 2.4 months of imports according to the Central Bank for April 2025. The national debt is 38-40% of GDP (2025, World Bank, IMF, Trading Economics), the debt has doubled in 10 years, but remained within moderate limits by continental standards.

Eswatini imports up to 70% of its food (grains, vegetable oil, meat); local production suffers from droughts and limited access to funds. National policy makes food security a priority, but internal reserves are small, and subsidies are provided during crisis years.

It produces 18-20% of electricity (the main source is hydroelectric power plants), the rest is imported mainly from South Africa (Eskom). The majority of the population depends on imported energy. Resources include coal, asbestos, gold, diamonds (development is limited), timber, sugar, agriculture (sugar is the basis of exports), talc, kaolin, small deposits of iron, uranium, and building mineral materials.

There are large dams (Maguga, Mnjoli), access to water in rural areas is obviously limited. Periodic droughts lead to severe water shortages for some of the population and the agricultural sector. All banking and clearing is controlled by the Central Bank of Eswatini, the SIAMAS payment system, electronic settlements and interbank transfers, and the national EmaCard card operate.

The emalangeni (SZL) are fully used in internal calculations, tied to the South African rand, which also has free circulation. It is estimated that Lilangeni accounts for more than 92% of all domestic payments, while the share of rand is higher in the private sector and imports.

Its own issuing center is the Central Bank of Eswatini; the bank issues loans, manages interest rate policy, inflation and money supply; the exchange and clearing of SZL currency is regulated by the Council of Ministers and the bank.

Data completeness assessment: the main macroeconomic indicators are available from official sources (World Bank, IMF), coverage is 91%

Technological sovereignty — 31.4

R&D expenditures — 0.27% of GDP (2015-2025, UN, World Bank); lower than the global and African average, but higher than most countries with comparable GDP. Import substitution is extremely low: fintech and software solutions are being purchased or localized, all microelectronics, servers, computers and most of the industrial high-tech are direct imports; there are no own productions, no real development and assembly are underway. Higher education enrollment (gross enrollment) is about 7% (for 2025, World Bank, COL, ESHEC): they show stable slow growth.

58% of the population uses the Internet (95% of the territory is covered by 4G), but the main barrier is the high cost of the Internet, the structure is mainly mobile networks. There are: e-Tax (taxes), e-Justice, education systems (MyUNESWA, e-Learning at universities), state portals (Gov.sz) and SIAMAS (government payments); as a rule, the infrastructure is based on foreign solutions.

90%+ of servers, software, industrial automation, fintech and basic solutions are imported from RSA, China, Europe, USA; almost no independent production is conducted. EGDI — 0.376; position 159 in the world (2022). <35% of public services are available online, mainly tax, educational, and basic regulatory services; the rest is paper-based.

Autonomy is low: own programs only in agriculture (cultivation of cultivated varieties, basic laboratories), basic vaccines, medicines, and technologies are imported. Universities and government organizations are engaged in the development of bio-sorts and food safety support. There is no local production of robots or industrial manipulators; purchased educational robot kits are used (in schools and universities), and the solution of strategic tasks and service needs is implemented using purchased foreign technologies.

The country does not have its own electronics industry — all chips, communication modules, PLCs, IT components and sensors are imported, the educational base at universities is being updated through external assistance; the level of techno-independence in microelectronics is zero.

Data completeness assessment: key indicators are obtained from WIPO, ITU, UNESCO, which provides 93% coverage.

Information sovereignty — 47.6

There is a national cybersecurity strategy Eswatini NCS 2025, which plans to introduce a national incident center (CIRT). ITU and AU trainings are regularly conducted, as well as training for cyberspecialists, but the competencies are still under development, and the ITU rating is in the zone of catching up countries.

Since 2014, it has been operating its own national IXP, Mbabane Internet Exchange Point, supported by the African Union and the Internet Society. The main infrastructure is functioning, but traffic exchange activities are limited and development is slow.

National media use Siswati and English — both have the status of official languages, media content (news, works, radio and TV) is published and published in both languages; media in Siswati account for up to 65-70% of all content in terms of coverage.

Most of the key platforms (social networks, cloud services, Internet infrastructure support) are based on foreign solutions (Microsoft, Meta, Google, Amazon). Independence is limited, national. The hosting and data location system is poorly developed.

According to Eswatini's latest national strategy, 65% of radio broadcasting and 70% of television airwaves are formed by the national.by manufacturers and in national languages. The government encourages the creation of local content with grants and quotas.

Government portals (eTax, eJustice, SIAMAS, MyUNESWA in education, etc.) are working, but the platform and most of the software are foreign and localized solutions, there are no strong IT products of their own. 57.6% of the country's population uses the Internet, 37.1% uses social networks, and the penetration of mobile services is up to 134% of the population (simultaneous use of SIM cards).

There is no national cloud infrastructure: government agencies lease hosting from foreign and regional providers (RSA, Europe), and the development of local data centers is planned after 2026. Mobile communications (MTN Eswatini, Eswatini Mobile) belong to national operators and the state, but they are highly technologically dependent on RSA (roaming, traffic exchange, technical support).

Radio frequencies and licenses are fully regulated by the state. In 2022, the Law on Data and Privacy was adopted: it controls the collection, processing and transfer of personal data; state supervision (Data Protection Authority) monitors compliance, but practice and law enforcement are in their infancy, a significant part of the data is stored and/or processed abroad.

Data completeness assessment: infrastructure indicators are available from ITU, CIRA, OECD and specialized sources, coverage is 92%.

Cultural sovereignty — 70.1

There are no sites in Eswatini on the main UNESCO World Heritage List. Ngwenya Mines (one of the oldest iron deposits on the planet) is on the national preliminary list.

Contributions include original music (Swahili, women's chorales, and the rhythms of Swaziland), dancing, oral poetry, traditional architecture (beehive huts), integration rituals, and a unique "royal" state structure; cultural festivals Umhlanga (Reed Dance), Incwala, gastronomy, and traditional medicine are also taught abroad.

The Eswatini National Arts and Culture Awards (NACA) have been held regularly since 2016: hundreds of nominees (music, theater, literature, visual arts, craftsmanship, dance, culture), hundreds of thousands of votes, national broadcast; individual awards for traditional culture and new inclusive categories.

Strong preservation and support of traditions: polygamy, patriarchy, clan structure, culture of respect for royalty, symbolic titles, mass participation in national ceremonies (Reed Dance, Incwala), transmission of traditions through families and schools; the great role of oral customs and art. Festivals and diaspora projects are funded (Nguni, the peoples of the border with South Africa and Mozambique), small languages are recognized (the main ones are Sisuati and English), state programs to preserve tribal practices, and teaching languages and cultures in schools.

Up to 25 officially recognized cultural sites (museums, royal residences, the largest traditional villages, Ngwenya Glass, Swazi Candles, Mbabane Art Gallery, Swazi Cultural Village, sculpture workshops, objects from tentative UNESCO), at least 100 monuments.

Eswatini participates in exchanges and exhibitions with South African countries, represents Ngwenya Mines at UNESCO, implements projects on intangible heritage with UNESCO, the African Union and NGOs; migrants from Zimbabwe and Mozambique integrate traditions and cuisines.

A national system for the protection of traditional arts and crafts (glass, iconic costumes, music, rituals), support for everything related to Umhlanga and Incwala, integration of local recipes and protection of geographical brands. The cuisine's traditions include corn porridge (phutu), grilled meat, bean stews, sago, vegetables, migrant dishes (Nigerian, Mozambican, Zimbabwean, and Zambian cuisines), ethnic and modern restaurants; food festivals are celebrated, and cuisine is recognized as an element of intangible heritage.

Up to 60% of the population participates in national ceremonies, educational programs, competitions, celebrations and joint cultural initiatives (schools, NACA, Umhlanga). Youth and the diaspora are actively involved through art schools and the National Council of Art and Culture.

Data completeness assessment: basic indicators are available in UNESCO and national statistics, coverage is 91%.

Cognitive sovereignty — 53.7

HDI — 0.695 (2025, UNDP), average level, 126th place in the world. Education expenditures — 5.3% of GDP (World Bank, IMF), budget 2025/26–5.41 billion rubles (~$325 million), about 16.6–19% of the country's consolidated budget. Adult literacy (15+) is 89-91% (World Bank 2025: 90.75%), with 93% higher among young people.

Eswatini is not directly involved in PISA; according to regional African cross—sections, below average results in mathematics and science for the countries of the African region, the main deficit is critical thinking and creativity.

STEM graduates account for about 27% (in total, in IT, engineering, medicine and sciences among the country's universities, according to the Ministry of Education/UNESCO). Up to 16% of universities implement joint programs (British A-level, Cambridge, African and partly Asian standards), international grants are distributed, including UWC Eswatini.

Two official languages (Sisuati and English), active support for schools for small ethnic communities, teaching of local history, language and culture, regular ethnocultural events and festivals. There are at least 5 state/semi-state research centers (at the University of Eswatini, the Institute of Agricultural Research, biomedical and pedagogical research centers).

85% of state schools and universities are connected to the national digital platform MyUNESWA, e-Learning ESHEC, educational GOV services are used, coverage is higher in cities, lower in rural areas. 1000+ scholarships, school and research grants every year, NaSRA, NACA medals, national competitions for youth, public and private foundations to support STEM and cultural specializations.

Data completeness assessment: education indicators are available in the UNDP, UNESCO, OECD, coverage is 90%.

Military sovereignty — 33.9

Defense spending is 1.57-1.65% of GDP, with a nominal budget of$$80-90 million (2025), a share higher than the average for the region, taking into account the size of the country. Umbutfo Eswatini Defense Force (UEDF): 3,000–3,200 active military, reserve — up to 1,000, at least 500 paramilitary structures (Royal Police).

There are few vehicles and weapons — armored vehicles, artillery and light weapons; there are no tanks, 10+ armored vehicles, 5+ towed guns, 2-3 helicopters for logistics and medical evacuation, vehicles are regularly updated for the needs of internal operations and border protection.

The production of weapons is practically non-existent. Since 2024, there has been a workshop for sewing military uniforms and assembling simple products (uniforms, accessories). All major weapons and technologies are purchased or received as aid, sometimes even used weapons from South Africa, India, Taiwan.

The borders are strictly controlled by the UEDF together with the police, patrolled regularly, mobile units and basic engineering and technical surveillance equipment are used (there are no complex systems, but all perimeter points are permanent).

The reserve is up to 1,000 people, the mobilization of an additional corps can be carried out in 30-60 days, the main backbone of the reserve is former or inactive military. Full sovereignty of military decisions — King Mswati III Supreme Commander; participation only in SADC missions and exercises and interaction with South Africa (exchange, training, education). There are no independent alliances or blocs.

The military-industrial complex is absent as a sector: the only new production is the tailoring of military uniforms (2024), the rest is local service (repair) and equipment support. There are no nuclear weapons, the country does not develop or possess nuclear technology, the NPT is signed, there are no missiles, air defense systems, or heavy weapons systems.

There is no military space program; everything related to monitoring is basic engineering tools, limited cybersecurity. There is its own army intelligence service, but it works for the needs of internal security and analytics, rather than an independent military-industrial complex or satellites.

All parameters are reflected in the annual reports of SIPRI, UNODA, the Ministry of Defense, the official portals of state-owned companies (Embraer, IMBEL) and the UN/NGO industry databases — 89% coverage

Final Summary Table

The main conclusions

Strengths. Macroeconomic and monetary stability: Moderate government debt (38-40% of GDP), a balanced budget for the main items, its own issuing center (Central Bank of Eswatini), major reserves in foreign currency and gold.

Developed culture, identity, traditions: One of the most stable cultural models in Africa, up to 60% of the population participates in cultural and national holidays, strong support for traditions, active work with youth and national festivals.

Decent coverage of the educational system and budget: Education expenditures — 5.3% of GDP, adult literacy — 89-91%, national online education platforms cover >85% of public schools. Sovereignty of governance and borders: The army and special services are completely national, there are no foreign bases, state control over mobile communications and large banks.

Moderately effective border surveillance, improved staffing: the Army and police ensure sovereignty, and fleet and mobile units are being updated. Political stability: Formally, a "stable" situation, with the head of state in full control of power, and a low probability of external breakthroughs or military coups.

Weaknesses. Import dependence: 70% of food, up to 80% of energy, and 90% of hi-tech are imported, industry and the IT sector are extremely underdeveloped, and there is no production of chips, robots, or any advanced equipment.

Technical and scientific weakness: Spending on R&D is 0.27% of GDP, STEM graduates are ~27%, R&D is fragmented; the innovation segment is extremely limited, basic digital services are based on external solutions.

Military restrictions: The army is equipped with only light weapons, there is practically no equipment, there is no production of weapons, the military reserve is minimal, there are no space and nuclear programs.

Limited rights and freedoms: The king has power, political pluralism and freedom are not developed, there is no transparent control of special services, most of the decisions are made by the monarch and the Council of Ministers.

Problems with social mobility: University enrollment is 7%, basic Internet and techno services are available only to citizens, the digital divide is large, the involvement of women and French-speaking communities is limited.

Overall assessment. Eswatini's cumulative sovereignty Index is 331.7 out of 700 possible points (average — 47.4%), which places the country in the top 150 in the global top.

Eswatini is a relatively stable, centralized, culturally oriented country with basic economic and financial independence, but with serious challenges in terms of technological, military, industrial independence and ensuring political and civil liberties.

Growth points include investments in education, localization of IT and industry, expansion of regional contacts, technological and personnel modernization.

The sovereignty profile indicates that the sovereignty of Eswatini for 2025 is a state with pronounced political centralization, stable traditional identity, moderate macro-financial independence with significant technological dependence and a modest domestic industrial/innovation base.