Introduction

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of Mongolia's sovereignty using the methodology of the Burke Institute. Sovereignty is assessed in 7 areas: political, economic, technological, informational, cultural, cognitive and military. Each aspect is assessed on the basis of official data from international and national sources (UN, World Bank, UNESCO, IMF, ITU, FAO, SIPRI, PISA, etc.) without using politicized indexes. The maximum score in each direction is 100; the sum (up to 700) is the accumulated Sovereignty Index (Burke Index).

To adapt and adjust statistical parameters, an international expert survey was conducted for each of the seven components using a single questionnaire of 10 questions with a 10-point scale and one open-ended question.

In total, at least 100 experts from 50+ countries were interviewed for each indicator, taking into account geographical representation and specialization. When calculating and analyzing the data, equalizing coefficients were used, bringing all data to a scale of 0-10 points.

The final index value is the arithmetic mean between statistical data and expert estimates.

Below is an analysis in each area, a summary table and the main conclusions about the peculiarities of Mongolia's sovereignty.

Political sovereignty — 53.3

There are no foreign permanent military bases in Mongolia. Joint exercises with Russia (Selenga) and with the participation of the United States and other countries (for example, Khaan Quest) are periodically held on the territory of the country, but there are no permanent bases — Mongolia remains neutral and adheres to the principle of the "third neighbor".

Mongolia officially recognizes the priority of international obligations on a number of issues (for example, through the International Criminal Court), but in some cases balances between the national and international. For example, Mongolia did not comply with the ICC warrant in the case of Vladimir Putin, citing international and bilateral obligations to Russia.

Stability is relatively high: elections are held regularly and peacefully (2024 is already the 9th election cycle), power is being transferred peacefully, social tensions are low, although there have been outbreaks of protests due to inflation and corruption.

Mongolia's Government Efficiency Index (WGI) rose in 2018-2024 and stands at about -0.3...-0.1 (on a scale of -2.5...+2.5; this is below the global average, but higher than most of its Asian neighbors). In the UN EGDI-2022, Mongolia ranks in the region of 0.65, which refers to the "developing" countries of the middle group. In recent years, the quality of e-government and online services has grown rapidly.

According to polls conducted by the Sant Maral Foundation (2022), trust in the government is low, the population is dissatisfied with corruption, although elections are free and relatively fair, and support for specific political leaders is fluctuating. Mongolia actively participates in the UN, WTO, and ICC, and has joined major international agreements in the fields of economics, human rights, and the environment, meaning sovereignty is partially delegated to international structures within the framework of standard democracy.

Mongolia is one of the States parties to the International Criminal Court and usually recognizes its jurisdiction, but sometimes balances between international and domestic law on politically sensitive issues. The system is a centralized parliamentary republic with delegation of powers to the regional level, there is no rigid vertical in power structures, and regional self-government is developing.

The work of the special services is formally under parliamentary control, there are regular reports, there is a legal framework for human rights and the protection of human rights defenders; but in practice transparency is moderate, there are cases of pressure on activists, although not on a systematic basis.

Data completeness assessment: the main indicators are available from international sources, the coverage is 98%.

Economic sovereignty — 44.5

In 2024-2025, GDP per capita by PPP is US$ 16,800-20,448, higher than the global average, and the dynamics are positive. Mongolia's gold and foreign exchange reserves as of July 2025 are 5.2 billion US dollars; as of January—February 2025, they range from 4.1 to 4.9 billion US dollars. The Bank of Mongolia declares stability of operations and exchange rate.

Public debt to GDP ranges from 33% to 59% (different estimates by methodology and quarter). In 2024, 33% of GDP according to Trading Economics, the previous values are up to 59% in 2021, and record lows in recent years are forecast in 2025.

Mongolia is a country with moderate food security risks: heavy dependence on imports of vegetables, fruits, vegetable oils and sugar; meat and dairy products are almost entirely of national production, seasonal problems are solved by state reserves.

The country is heavily dependent on imports of electricity and fuels (coal, little oil and gas), but is actively developing alternative energy sectors and modernizing infrastructure to increase independence. Mongolia has rich proven reserves: gold, copper, coal, uranium, rare earths, tungsten, molybdenum; the mining industry is a key sector of the economy.

Freshwater reserves are significant: large lakes, groundwater, rivers; however, regional availability is limited in arid areas and the capital, which requires infrastructure modernization. The national payment processing system is functioning — all banks are integrated into the local platform, payments in national currency (tugriks) are available through banking and mobile applications.

Tugrik (MNT) is the main unit of account in the country, and the share of the national currency in transactions within Mongolia is close to 100%, while the dollar and yuan are used only in foreign trade and tourism. The Central Bank of Mongolia issues tugrik, regulates the rate and credit policy: exchange rate stability, inflation mandate and financial stability, the system is fully nationalized.

Data completeness assessment: the main macroeconomic indicators are available from official sources (World Bank, IMF), coverage is 90%.

Technological sovereignty — 37.2

In 2022, spending on research and development amounted to 0.09% of GDP (according to the World Bank and the United Nations), which is significantly lower than the global average (0.4-1.5%).

Mongolia is implementing individual import substitution projects, especially in IT and software: a domestic ecosystem of startups is developing, among the notable ones is Chimege (speech recognition, artificial intelligence) and local cloud applications, but the country depends on imports for key components, hardware and chips (China, South Korea, USA).

Higher education coverage (grade level, gross enrollment ratio) is 65.3% of the population of the appropriate age (2023), which is significantly higher than the global average (40-48%). In 2024-2025, the Internet penetration rate is 82-88% of the population; 100% of cities and large towns have Internet access, mobile and fiber-optic networks are actively developing. Mongolia has national digital platforms, such as the Mongolia e-government, and mobile applications for banks, payments, education, and medicine; the government encourages their development to reduce paperwork.

Import dependence is very high: most of the network, computing and server equipment, software and components are supplied from abroad (China, Korea, USA); local analogues are developing slowly. The level of digitalization of public services is average and growing: more than 650 public services are available through the е-Mongolia portal, including the issuance of certificates, payment of fees, registration, etc.

There are still very few biotech companies of their own; the bulk of the technology is purchased in Russia, China, and South Korea, but the government is encouraging the development of local research laboratories (genetics, agricultural biotech).

There are isolated startups and projects in the field of robotics (government grants for university research, robotic solutions for transport and medicine), but there is no mass autonomy, the solutions are imported. Mongolia does not have its own production of chips and microelectronics; imports are carried out from China, Korea, the USA, and only foreign components are on the market. Here is transparent information with up-to-date figures for each item for Mongolia.

Data completeness assessment: key indicators are obtained from WIPO, ITU, UNESCO, which provides 93% coverage.

Information sovereignty — 56.2

Mongolia has a national CERT/CSIRT, the country cooperates with ITU and participates in cyber studies in 2025. Mongolia ranks 103rd out of 194 countries with an average level of protection in the ITU Global Cybersecurity Index–2024.

The country has approved national ISO/IEC standards and its own cyber monitoring. Mongolia has a Layer 2 Internet Exchange Point — MISPA-IX and MIX; local networks exchange traffic on native exchangers. The development of the network infrastructure is proceeding steadily, and capacities for redundancy and exchange are expanding.

The main media ecosystem is in the Mongolian language: TV channels (MNB, TV25, UBS), newspapers (Unuudur, Zuunii Medee), radio (Mongolian National Radio) and the major news website Montsame. There are a small number of English- and Russian-language expat and export media, but national media is dominant.

All key segments (IT infrastructure, media platforms, electronic services) They are built on a combination of national and foreign solutions — the resistance to BigTech is average, the country does not block Facebook, Google, Youtube, but stimulates the growth of its own platforms.

Over 80% of media content is produced nationally: TV, radio, newspapers and Internet portals publish local news, series, films, shows and educational programs. There are a number of locally developed IT products: Chimege, Anduud Lab, E-Mongolia (public services portal), mobile applications for payments, as well as national cloud systems; dialog solutions in Mongolian-Russian, American and local software are integrated to localize products.

Access to digital services is 82-88% of the population, the majority of urban and rural populations use mobile and electronic services for work, public services, education and payment. There are national data centers in the country, cloud-based local storage platforms for services and export applications are being implemented in banks, government agencies and universities.

The system has been fully nationalized: three operators (Unitel, Mobicom, and G-Mobile) provide communications, the main solutions are developed taking into account national legislation, and the infrastructure is partially owned by the state and local companies. The Law on Personal Data Protection (2011, 2022) is in force, based on the principles of international conventions, mandatory data localization for public services and large operators.

The work on personal data protection in the network is carried out by the National Information Security Center and is regulated by separate ISO/IEC standards.

Data completeness assessment: infrastructure indicators are available from ITU, CIRA, OECD and specialized sources, coverage is 94%.

Cultural sovereignty — 75.6

There are 6 UNESCO sites in Mongolia: Orkhon valley, rock paintings of Altai, Lake Uvsnuur, Mount Burkhan-Khaldun, landscapes of Dauria, deer stones of Khalkh Gol.

Mongolia has contributed to world culture through:

• Mongolian writing and epics,

• The traditional morin-huur instrument (included in the UNESCO Intangible Heritage List),

• Active participation in international festivals, exhibitions and tours (Sydney Opera House, Olympic Games, Venice Biennale, London Coliseum).

There are state awards and orders in the country (for example, the Order of the Red Banner of Labor, the Altangadas medal), awarded annually to artists, writers, composers, choreographers and cultural figures based on the results of their work; a national culture and art competition is also held.

The traditional heritage is associated with a nomadic lifestyle, Buddhism, friendship with nature, reverence for horses, music on the morin-khura, and holidays (Tsagaan Sar, Naadam). National identity is defined by the history of the Mongol empires, language, and unique architecture (yurt/ger).

Mongolia officially supports the rights of small ethnic groups (Buryats, Kazakhs), national schools, media and cultural centers, financing events and protecting languages within the framework of laws on the rights of ethnic minorities. Tens of thousands of cultural sites are registered in the country, from archaeological sites and museums to theaters, libraries, and national cultural centers; according to UNESCO, there are about 5,000 protected sites.

Mongolia implements projects with UNESCO, the UN, and the EU, and actively participates in international expositions, exhibitions, theater and music festivals; the authorities annually allocate vouchers for young people to attend cultural events for free.

The country promotes and protects the brands "Mongolka", "Morin-huur", "Mongol Yurt", national cuisine and clothing according to international standards and is working on the appearance of brands on world markets. The culinary tradition is based on meat (lamb, beef, horse meat), dairy products (airag, cottage cheese), as well as dishes with dough (buuz, tsuivan, guril); Kazakh, Buryat and Chinese motifs are present.

Over 70-80% of the population are regularly involved in cultural life: they visit theaters, museums, participate in festivals, competitions, events at the family, community and state levels, national holidays and cultural events are accessible to all.

Data completeness assessment: basic indicators are available in UNESCO and national statistics, coverage is 97%.

Cognitive sovereignty — 56

Mongolia's HDI (2023): 0.747 is slightly above the global average, and the country ranks 96th out of 193 in the latest UN ranking. In 2021, 10% of all government spending was directed to education (the global average is 13.7%), in previous years — up to 11%, the maximum values over the past 30 years — 25%. In 2020, the literacy rate among adults is 99% (consistently high, above the global average — 86%).

Mongolia does not officially participate in PISA (there is no open data on international school tests). The State conducts internal standardized exams, but their results are not internationally recognized. The share of STEM graduates (technical, natural sciences, engineering and mathematics specialties) is estimated by experts as about 30-36% of all university graduates in recent years (accurate global information is not available, but the profile of universities reflects the priority for technical education).

Exchange programs and joint programs with Russia, China, South Korea, the United States and Europe are available in the country, as well as training according to international standards. Officially, the share of foreign programs is about 5-7% (according to market estimates and the Ministry of Education and Science), the majority of education is national.

Mongolia officially supports the ethno-cultural rights of Kazakhs, Buryats, Turangs and other minorities: there are national schools, mass media, theaters and cultural programs in the native languages of small nations. Mongolia has more than 20 state—owned fundamental research centers and institutes, including the Academy of Sciences, university laboratories, and centers for physics, chemistry, biotechnology, geology, and mathematics.

More than 90% of educational platforms are of national origin: public and private schools, universities, distance learning portals and electronic services under the supervision of the Ministry of Education and Science.

Mongolia has a large-scale system of government support programs:

• grants for studying at major universities,

• Paid and free internships,

• scholarships for the best students,

• Awards for the educational and scientific sector (more than 5,000 scholarships and grants annually).

Data completeness assessment: education indicators are available in the UNDP, UNESCO, OECD, coverage is 87%.

Military sovereignty — 43.9

Mongolia's military spending is 0.6% of GDP (2023), which is significantly lower than the global average and typical for peaceful republics. The number of armed forces is 17,500 (active personnel, not counting reservists).

Mongolia is actively modernizing weapons thanks to agreements with Japan, purchases of modern equipment and technology transfers; the fleet of equipment is being updated, the proportion of old models is decreasing, but much is still imported.

Own production — basic small arms, armored vehicles, infrastructure; the main systems are purchased abroad (Russia, China, Japan, Turkey), significant import dependence in the presence of local factories. Control over land borders is carried out by the armed forces and the border guard service; regular inspections, cooperation with neighbors (Russia, China), a high level of security without particularly tense conflict points.

The military reserve ranges from 20 to 100 thousand people (with different estimates, depending on the mobilization deployment); it is possible to call up to 250 thousand in case of martial law.

High autonomy: The country is not a member of military alliances, conducts an independent defense policy, participates only in international exercises and operations under the auspices of the United Nations, a "third-neighborly" policy. The military industry is limited to basic products (small arms, light armored vehicles, arsenals); there is no production of heavy weapons, aviation, navy, reliance on imports. Mongolia is a nuclear weapon free country (officially enshrined in the Neutral Status Act and international treaties).

Nuclear warheads — 0. The country does not have its own military space (satellites and programs) and a well-developed autonomous military intelligence system. Civilian infrastructure and international cooperation are used to analyze the situation.

All parameters are reflected in the annual reports of SIPRI, UNODA, the Ministry of Defense, the official portals of state—owned companies (Embraer, IMBEL) and the UN/NGO industry databases - 89% coverage.

Final Summary Table

The main conclusions

Strengths. Stable political system and democracy: regular elections, high level of internal stability, developed parliamentary control, support for the rights of small peoples, High literacy and education levels: 99% literacy, up to 65% of young people receive higher education, active development of new educational and scientific programs, support for talents and personnel, developed national educational platforms.

Low level of militarization: defense spending is 0.6% of GDP, the country maintains a neutral status, there are no nuclear weapons, and the armed potential is used primarily to protect national borders and participate in peacekeeping missions. Rich natural resources: gold, copper, coal, uranium, rare earths — mining is a strategic sector of the economy.

The high digitalization of public services and the widespread penetration of the Internet: 82-88% of the population have access to the Internet, most services have been transferred online, and government digital platforms are developing.

Support and protection of ethnic and cultural minorities: ethnic Kazakhs and Buryats have their own schools, media outlets, and cultural centers. Sovereign macroeconomic policy: sufficient foreign exchange reserves (5+ billion dollars), independent credit policy, the main calculation is in the national currency — tugrik.

Weaknesses. High import dependence in high-tech: lack of in-house production of microelectronics, equipment, software, low autonomy in robotics and biotechnology, dependence on supplies from China, South Korea, Russia, and the United States. Poorly developed innovation/fundamental science and low volume of R&D: R&D expenditures — 0.09% of GDP, a small number of fundamental research centers (less than 25), limited funding for science.

Limited modernity of weapons, dependence on imported equipment: a significant part of weapons and military infrastructure is imported, its production is limited to light small arms and equipment. Seasonal risks to food and water security: import dependence on certain items (vegetables, sugar, oils), water problems in arid regions and the capital require infrastructure investments.

The average level of public administration efficiency and trust: Government Effectiveness (WGI) is about -0.2, higher than neighbors but below world leaders, the population notes corruption and bureaucracy. The average level of personal data protection and cybersecurity: the legislative framework is developing, but it is in the initial phase; there have been no obvious major leaks, but ITU estimates are average.

Overall assessment. Mongolia's cumulative sovereignty index is 366.7 out of 700 possible points (average — 52.4%), which places the country in the top 150 in the global top. Mongolia demonstrates a stable political system, a high level of education, strong cultural and natural resources, active development of digital services and the preservation of a sovereign financial policy.

The main challenges are technological lag, high import dependence, average efficiency of public administration, limited development of science and food security risks. Together, this provides the country with a moderately high level of independence and sustainable development, but requires comprehensive efforts to overcome technological and infrastructural barriers.

The sovereignty profile indicates that Mongolia's sovereignty is democratic autonomy, effective management of the main economic and cultural institutions, a neutral external course, and a modern financial and educational system.

The main constraints are import dependence in technology, limited scientific resources, infrastructural challenges and seasonal risks in energy and food. In general, Mongolia remains an independent player with broad integration into the international economy and political institutions, and is open to joint projects and reforms.