Introduction

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of Malaysia's sovereignty using the methodology of the Burke Institute. Sovereignty is assessed in 7 areas: political, economic, technological, informational, cultural, cognitive and military. Each aspect is assessed on the basis of official data from international and national sources (UN, World Bank, UNESCO, IMF, ITU, FAO, SIPRI, PISA, etc.) without using politicized indexes. The maximum score in each direction is 100; the sum (up to 700) is the accumulated Sovereignty Index (Burke Index).

To adapt and adjust statistical parameters, an international expert survey was conducted for each of the seven components using a single questionnaire of 10 questions with a 10-point scale and one open-ended question.

In total, at least 100 experts from 50+ countries were interviewed for each indicator, taking into account geographical representation and specialization. When calculating and analyzing the data, equalizing coefficients were used, bringing all data to a scale of 0-10 points.

The final index value is the arithmetic mean between statistical data and expert estimates.

Below is an analysis of each area, a summary table and the main conclusions about the specifics of Malaysia's sovereignty.

Political sovereignty — 68.4

There are no permanent foreign military bases in the country. The only major exception is the Malaysian Butterworth air base, where, under the FPDA (Five Power Defense Arrangements) agreement, personnel and equipment from Australia and other participating countries are deployed, but it is fully controlled by Malaysia and is not a full—fledged foreign base.

The Constitution of Malaysia contains the principle of the supremacy of national law (article 4), which gives the courts the right to declare unconstitutional any acts contrary to the Basic Law, including international norms. International obligations do not take precedence over national laws and can be ignored by courts.

The Political Stability Index (WGI, World Bank, 2023) is 0.17 (scale from -2.5 to +2.5; global average: -0.06), indicating relative stability, above the global average. Malaysia is characterized by structural political conflicts, but the threat of violent overthrow of power is extremely low. Malaysia (2023): 0.88 on a scale from -2.5 to +2.5 (the global average is about 0), as well as 79.72% in the global ranking (2023).

This reflects the high quality of public services, administrative independence and stable institutions. Malaysia ranks 57th out of 193 countries, EGDI index: 0.8111 (2024, UNDESA). Class: Very high level of development of electronic services (Very High EGDI). In 2024, 68% of the population trusts the government — according to the Edelman Trust Barometer, Malaysia ranks seventh among 28 countries.

Confidence in Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim is one of the key explanations for the growth rate. Malaysia actively participates in multilateral organizations: the United Nations, the OIC, the Commonwealth, ASEAN, and the Non-Aligned Movement. Membership in many associations does not lead to a loss of sovereignty: decisions are made sovereignly, conventions are usually executed on the terms of the state.

In 2019, Malaysia ratified the Rome Statute and joined the International Criminal Court (ICC), but later cancelled the ratification under internal pressure. At the time of 2025, it is not a current party to the Rome Statute, but works with the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and participates in trials before the International Court of Justice. Malaysia is a federation, but in fact the political system is highly centralized.

The main levers of government, budgetary resources and power are concentrated in the federal center, despite the formal existence of autonomous states. Direct mechanisms of civil and parliamentary control over the security services are poorly developed. There are few specific transparent schemes: investigations into data leaks and the work of intelligence agencies usually do not become the subject of public discussion, and reporting is limited by internal procedures.

Data completeness assessment: the main indicators are available from international sources, the coverage is 98%.

Economic sovereignty — 72.2

GDP is $34,072-38,729 per capita at purchasing power parity in 2024 ([World Bank], [IMF]). Malaysia is ahead of most countries in the world in this indicator. Gold and foreign exchange reserves of $116.2 billion as of December 2024 (data from the National Bank). Reserves include foreign currency, gold ($3.3 billion), SDR, and IMF assets.

The national debt of 64.6% of GDP as of December 2024 ([CEIC], [Statista], [IMF]) remains stable from the previous year. According to the GFSI index, it ranks 57th in the world (2022), with 53.7 points.

According to internal estimates, Malaysia covers from 14% to 70% of its food needs through its own production, the rest is imported. 96.8% is the level of energy independence, one of the highest in the region.

Malaysia remains a net exporter of oil and gas, and the renewable energy sector is growing rapidly.

• 32 trillion cubic feet of proven natural gas reserves (at the end of 2023).

• Significant oil reserves (24 million tons produced in 2024).

• Rare earth metals and other resources are being developed, and the potential is high. Malaysia has significant reserves: high availability of fresh water per capita (exact figures need to be clarified according to the national framework). There are no signs of water shortage.

Within the country, the main payment processing is provided by national platforms — PayNet (Bank Negara Malaysia represented by MyDebit, DuitNow, etc.), there are local payment standards (information requires confirmation if necessary). The Malaysian Ringgit (MYR) is the main means of payment within the country.

The share of MYR in cross—border payments is growing, but the US dollar is also used for imports; exact percentage data is not publicly available, but approximately >65% of domestic payments are made on MYR.

Negara Malaysia Bank (the central bank) issues MYR, conducts an independent national credit and monetary policy, which regulates all basic parameters of liquidity, interest rates and reserves.

Data completeness assessment: the main macroeconomic indicators are available from official sources (World Bank, IMF), coverage is 90%

Technological sovereignty — 71.5

R&D 0.84% of GDP in 2024. The current value is stable, but the government has announced a growth rate of up to 2.5% in the coming years. Actual grants and funding are already increasing, but the share is still average for this phase of development. Import substitution is growing, and Malaysia is becoming a regional data center.

Local platforms are being built, global giants (Amazon, Google, Microsoft) are being involved. But >60% of high-tech components are still purchased outside the country. Higher education enrollment (gross enrollment): 41-44% (2023), roughly equivalent to the average for ASEAN, but below developed countries.

The proportion of applicants is gradually increasing. 97.4% of the population has Internet users as of the beginning of 2024. One of the highest rates in the region. There are MyDIGITAL (state initiative), DuitNow, MySejahtera, PayNet and a number of others operating in the country.

Together with local platforms in the field of e-gov, fintech and health. Malaysia remains highly dependent on imports of high-tech products and components. The main sources are China, the United States, Singapore, and large purchases for electronics, machines, chips, and components. Public services are being actively digitized: >88% of public services are available online (EGDI: 0.8111, ranked 57 in the world).

Digital legislation has been modernized, including cybersecurity and data protection. They have their own research infrastructure and educational programs, but a deep dependence on equipment and reagents remains, especially in the biopharm and genetics segment.

The development and implementation of robotics is underway, but most of the equipment is imported, local companies are engaged in integration, assembly and customization. In agriculture, logistics, and manufacturing, domestic solutions are being introduced.

Malaysia is one of the three largest global exporters of electronic assembly, but dependence on foreign technologies and components remains high; its own design is developing (ARM, Nvidia investments), new factories are being built.

Data completeness assessment: key indicators are obtained from WIPO, ITU, UNESCO, which provides 93% coverage.

Information sovereignty — 73

Tier 1 in the ITU GCI-2024 ranking, aggregate score — 98.82/100. Malaysia has a national incident response Center (MyCERT) and is recognized by the United Nations as one of the best countries in terms of cyber defense integration. The main national Internet Exchange Point is MyIX. 2024: peak load is 2.6 Tbps, several independent data centers across the country (Cyberjaya, Kuala Lumpur, Brickfields).

MyIX provides network stability, multifactor integration and security, and helps reduce dependence on international cables. Bahasa Malaysia is recognized as the official language and is supported by all major media (television, radio, online and print media). The Government is increasing its use in all sectors, including private and educational sectors.

The reach of our own audiovisual products is growing. Most of the critical infrastructure and traffic exchange points (IXP, mobile communications, cloud) are under national control through public and private companies.

There are no open cases of BigTech's total dominance, and local platforms are actively competing with global players. The majority of traditional and online media are Malaysian in origin, and the share of national content exceeds 60%. The media are subject to the influence of regulation, but their own products dominate the domestic segment, especially in the national language.

The key national IT platforms are MyDIGITAL, DuitNow, MySejahtera, MyIX, as well as a segment for financial, educational, and e-health solutions. All these are developments with the participation of state—owned or Malaysian companies. Access to more than 88% of public services online, integration of digital solutions in all industries (m-banking, public services, medicine, education, trade). Internet penetration is about 97.4%.

Malaysia is building its own data centers and cloud platforms (MyGovCloud, PayNet, MyIX), stimulating local storage of personal and commercial data, and there is a national strategy for the development of a “sovereign cloud”. All major mobile operators — Telekom Malaysia, Maxis, CelcomDigi, Time dotCom are local.

Licenses, base stations, and infrastructure are monitored and regulated by national authorities. The Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA) is in force and regulates the collection, storage, cross-border transfer and processing of personal data. Clear rules, high level of compliance, government supervision. The law requires data localization and security, especially for critical sectors.

Data completeness assessment: infrastructure indicators are available from ITU, CIRA, OECD and specialized sources, coverage is 94%.

Cultural sovereignty — 77.4

5 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (2024):

• Kinabalu (Kinabalu Park)

• Gunung Mulu (Gunung Mulu National Park)

• Georgetown and Malacca (Historic Cities of the Straits of Malacca)

• Lenggong Valley (Archaeological Heritage of the Lenggong Valley)

• Niah Caves (Niah National Park's Caves, from August 2024)

Malaysia is a recognized center of cultural diversity:

• The world-famous batik school, culinary masterpieces (nasy lemak, Penang cuisine), film-inspired shadow theater (Wayang Kulit), traditional dances. Historically, it has been a center of trade and a mix of civilizations — Malay, Chinese, Indian, and European.

The main state award is the National Arts Award (ASN):

• Awarded for contributions to music, dance, drama, crafts, visual arts, nominations — with a cash prize and the status of "national artist."

• There are separate awards to support media content and patrons.

The country is an ethnocultural conglomerate:

• Malays, Chinese, Indians, Indigenous peoples.

• The cult of family and religious values, multinational festivals, and educational systems develop the languages and customs of different groups.

The state conducts support programs for small and indigenous ethnic groups (Orang Asli, Dayaks, Iban, Kadazan, etc.), financing cultural centers, ethnographic events, and language preservation. Malaysia has thousands of iconic architectural sites, museums, and exhibition halls. There are extensive archaeological areas — the Lenggong Valley, the Niyah caves, temples, mosques, palaces.

Malaysia is constantly involved in major international projects of UNESCO, ASEAN, etc. The country is a platform for festivals, congresses on ethnography and gastronomy, cinema, cooperates with foreign museums, art foundations, participates in global heritage conservation programs.

The government protects and promotes Malay brands such as batik, textiles, cuisine, crafts, and supports obtaining recognition of objects (Geographical Indications) and international registration. Laws on heritage preservation are being actively implemented. Due to its multi—ethnicity, it is one of the richest cuisines in the world.

The most popular are Malay, Indian, Chinese, Western and local cuisines, marked by gastronomic guidebooks. Dishes and drinks are exported for the global market, and they are recognized by international ratings. About 70% of the population regularly participates in cultural events, festivals, dances, theater, and religious celebrations. A network of museums, art schools, and youth programs has been developed.

Data completeness assessment: basic indicators are available in UNESCO and national statistics, coverage is 97%.

Cognitive sovereignty — 61.6

Malaysia's HDI is 0.819 (2023), the "very high level" category according to the UN classification, 46-68 place in the world. RM58.7 billion (~3.6% of GDP) was allocated in 2024 for the education sector, the largest budget item in the country. Constant increase in funding. 96% of adults (over 15 years old) are literate (data 2022-2024).

2022: mathematics — 409, science — 416, reading — 388 (average score below OECD and ASEAN-6). Only 41% of 15-year—olds have reached the international average level in mathematics, 1% - the top level. 43.5% of university graduates are STEM specialists (the highest rate among large countries). Malaysia is a strong international educational hub, with about 250,000 international students by 2025.

Joint degrees, franchises, and partner programs are active. Extensive teaching and support of indigenous languages (Orang Asli, Iban, Kadazan, Dayak, etc.), ethnocultural schools and educational grants. More than 30 government research organizations and institutes in the field of fundamental sciences at universities, ministries and specialized agencies (MOSTI, AMREC, MARDI, NAR, etc.).

All government online platforms are of national development (MYGuru, Digital Education Platform, e-Learning portals at universities). There are dozens of government programs to support gifted students and staff, including grants, scholarships (MARA, JPA, Khazanah, Petronas, STEM Excellence, TalentCorp), with an annual increase in funding. Assessment of completeness of data: education indicators are available in the UNDP, UNESCO, OECD, coverage is 97%.

Military sovereignty — 55.3

0.93% OF GDP (2023-2024). The share of expenditures has been very stable in recent years, and Malaysia is one of the lowest—cost countries in the region in terms of defense. 113,000 active military personnel, 51,600 reservists (2024).

Permanent staff reductions in recent years — more than 27,000 have left (2020-2024). Active programs for modernization of armored vehicles (K200 MIFV Hanwha/Cendana Auto), purchase of new helicopters (AW149), fighter jets (FA-50, F/A-18C/D). Retrofitting is underway, but the proportion of obsolete systems remains significant.

The country has developed the production of armored vehicles (DefTech, Cendana Auto), small arms (SME Ordnance, ZETRO Services), some of the assembly is carried out locally. More than half of the weapons are imported components (South Korea, France, USA, China).

Control is carried out by the border guard service, army detachments, the protection of sea and land borders is provided with modern equipment and patrol means. The operational reserve is 51,600 people (2024), the structure of reservists is regularly updated, and additional mobilization trainings are being scheduled.

Malaysia retains autonomy in decision-making; participates in the FPDA (Five Power Defense Arrangements), but there are no formal military alliances/commitments. External operations are carried out only by decision of the Government, up to and including peacekeeping missions. The defense industry is well developed: DefTech, SME Ordnance, CTRM, ZETRO, Cendana Auto. Production of armored personnel carriers, armored cars, small arms, components, and service systems is underway.

Malaysia does not have nuclear weapons. The State has signed the NPT and does not conduct relevant research or production. The number of warheads is 0. There are no deployed military space systems; civilian space programs (from the Malaysian Space Agency). Exploration is diversified, but without open information about global autonomous satellites or national satellite systems.

Cooperation continues with the Allies and in the framework of peacekeeping missions. All parameters are reflected in the annual reports of SIPRI, UNODA, the Ministry of Defense, the official portals of state-owned companies (Embraer, IMBEL) and industry databases of UN/NGO - 90% coverage

Final Summary Table

The main conclusions

Strengths. High level of human development (HDI 0.819) and literacy (96%). Stable economic development: GDP/capita by PPP is $34-39 thousand, with a growth forecast of 4.5–5.5% for 2025. Significant sovereign reserve ($116 billion). Multilevel political stability, effective governance, and high electoral and institutional trust. Well-developed electronic infrastructure, 97% Internet penetration, high EGDI (0.81).

Digitalization of public services, national platforms, strong cyber security (Tier 1 ITU), proprietary cloud systems and national payment solutions. Rich cultural identity and multi-ethnicity: 5 UNESCO sites, active state cultural policy, unique cuisine, support for small nations.

Educational leadership in the region: a high proportion of STEM (43%), more than 250,000 international students, and high education costs. Significant foreign direct investment, attractiveness for business — cheap skilled labor, infrastructure, transparent policy.

Military autonomy: independent policy, developed defense industry, reliable border control, key segments of armaments are being modernized.

Weaknesses. Relatively low defense spending (0.93% of GDP) and limited size and modernization of the army. High import dependence on hi-tech and military equipment: most of the electronics, microelectronics, robotics and some types of weapons are foreign-made. Moderate positions on PISA results, insufficient academic performance of schoolchildren compared to the OECD, and the need for educational reforms.

A small contribution to basic science and R&D is only 0.8% of GDP and the average coverage of higher education. There is no nuclear or space military potential, and space projects are civilian. Significant government debt (64.6% of GDP), while maintaining a stable sovereign rating. The share of our own weapons and high—tech products is below the world leaders, and sustainable development requires accelerated localization.

The economy is sensitive to global trade risks, fluctuations in demand/tariffs and changing export conditions (especially against the background of dependence on raw materials and external competition).

Overall assessment. Malaysia's cumulative sovereignty Index is 479.4 out of 700 possible points (above the average of 68.5%), which places the country in the top 50 in the global top.

Malaysia is an economically, socially, and culturally strong country, demonstrating success in financial and digital independence, effective governance, and integration, but with weaknesses in educational outcomes, technological autonomy, and military modernization.

The country's position is characterized by high adaptive capabilities and potential for further strategic development.

The sovereignty profile indicates that Malaysia demonstrates stable and balanced sovereignty in most critical areas: independent management of domestic and foreign policy, a developed financial system, a strong cultural identity, an open expert and educational environment, as well as digital sovereignty and control over strategic infrastructures.

Weaknesses include technological and defense import dependence, as well as moderate indicators of basic science, educational outcomes, and military autonomy. The country confidently defends its interests — there are no compromises on the key principles of independence.