Introduction

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of Benin's sovereignty using the methodology of the Burke Institute. Sovereignty is assessed in 7 areas: political, economic, technological, informational, cultural, cognitive and military. Each aspect is assessed on the basis of official data from international and national sources (UN, World Bank, UNESCO, IMF, ITU, FAO, SIPRI, PISA, etc.) without using politicized indexes. The maximum score in each direction is 100; the sum (up to 700) is the accumulated Sovereignty Index (Burke Index).

To adapt and adjust statistical parameters, an international expert survey was conducted for each of the seven components using a single questionnaire of 10 questions with a 10-point scale and one open-ended question.

In total, at least 100 experts from 50+ countries were interviewed for each indicator, taking into account geographical representation and specialization. When calculating and analyzing the data, equalizing coefficients were used, bringing all data to a scale of 0-10 points.

The final index value is the arithmetic mean between statistical data and expert estimates.

Below is an analysis in each area, a summary table and the main conclusions about the peculiarities of Benin's sovereignty.

Political sovereignty — 28.7

Benin is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, ECOWAS, WAEMU/UEMOA, LAS, OIC, as well as the World Trade Organization, IMF, WHO, WTO, and IBRD; it has signed global codes and anti—corruption pacts. Actively participates in UN peacekeeping missions, accepts European and other international projects. The Constitution (2019; ed. 2024) asserts the priority of international treaties (Articles 145, 147); ratified agreements are above national law.

However, in 2020, Benin restricted the direct access of citizens and NGOs to the African Court of Human Rights. It is generally stable, but after 2016, there have been trends towards authoritarian drift, increased control over parties/media, protests and crises around the 2019 and 2021 elections.

The north of the country is troubled by jihadist attacks. WGI index: +0.07 (2024; World Bank), above the regional average; improvements in infrastructure and digitalization have been noted, but the slowness and weakness of administrative systems in the regions remains. EGDI — 0.41 (2022), above the African average, the state portal covers basic services, progress on taxes, education, housing and communal services is reflected, but coverage is still limited to large cities.

President Talon (since 2016, re-elected in 2021) is officially legitimate, but the level of trust and turnout in the elections are falling. The rating is positive among the business elite and in southern cities, the opposition increased in parliament in 2023; massive distrust is typical for northern and rural regions.

There are no military bases of NATO or countries outside Africa; there is military and police cooperation with France, the EU, training and equipment, but not permanent bases. Benin is a member of a number of courts and organizations, including the ECOWAS Court, but in 2020 it restricted direct filing of complaints with the African Court of Human Rights; it fulfills all international obligations under the Constitution.

Decentralization is built into the system (municipalities, departments), but in recent years the president has strengthened control — regional authorities and key courts are de facto affiliated with the executive branch. The law enforcement agencies are formally under parliamentary control, but after 2019.

There is an increase in their autonomy, restrictions on access to the press, an increase in the number of complaints about pressure on activists and the opposition; real independent audit is limited.

Data completeness assessment: the main indicators are available from international sources, coverage is 94%.

Economic sovereignty — 28.2

GDP of $3,900–4,435 (2024, World Bank/TradingEconomics), 22% of the global average ($27,000); slow but steady growth in recent years. Gold and foreign exchange reserves of $10.9 billion (2024, FocusEconomics), a sharp increase due to Eurobonds and BCEAO regional reserves; covers 7-9 months of imports, ranks among the top 10 African countries in reserves. National debt 53.7–54.0% of GDP (2024, Ecofin/Statista/IMF), structure: 72% is external debt, 28% is internal; in the WAEMU zone, it is far from the “critical” threshold of 70%.

Own production accounts for 65-72% of demand (corn, yams, rice, cotton), the rest is imported, the risks of famine are minimized; export and insurance programs are being implemented after the pandemic. ~40% of electricity is produced domestically (hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants, gas), the rest is imported from Nigeria, Ghana, and Côte d'Ivoire; projects to increase local generation are being implemented with the help of Franco-Chinese consortia.

Large reserves of iron, phosphates, limestone, bauxite, cement raw materials, manganese, oil (undeveloped); cotton is the largest export commodity. By integration, it is one of the best systems in West Africa: supply is stable in the Ueme basin and irrigated areas, sources are underground horizons, rivers, lakes, and the risk of shortage is low. It is carried out by the BCEAO Central Bank; Benin is integrated into XOF regional processing, the coverage of banking services is one of the highest in the region; electronic and cash payments are in local currency.

Within the country, 97-98% of payments are made to XOF, export and import payments are made in dollars and euros, but currency refunds are regulated by BCEAO and the Ministry of Finance. The issuing center is BCEAO/UEMOA; the credit policy, the XOF rate and key bank rates are set by the regional center, there is no independent policy.

Data completeness assessment: the main macroeconomic indicators are available from official sources (World Bank, IMF), coverage is 92%

Technological sovereignty — 13.4

R&D 0.00% of GDP — according to the World Bank and WIPO; sustained lack of domestic investment in R&D (research and development). There is no: the share of own IT products, software, and equipment is less than 5%; almost all is imported, the bulk of high-tech is from the EU, China, India, and South Korea.

Higher education enrollment is 10.6% (2022, gross enrollment); an increase due to the construction of new universities and campuses, but still 2-3 times lower than the global median. 33.8% (2024), or 4.69 million people have Internet access; by 2025 — 32.2% of the population.

The dynamics are positive, but 2/3 of citizens are still offline. The main portal of public services is functioning, the national tax and educational platform is developing; most of the platforms are based on foreign developments or adaptations. Imports of high-tech goods account for 98-99%; there are no own production facilities or R&D clusters, even the assembly of IT and household appliances is minimal.

EGDI (2022): 0.41 — above the average for West Africa, but the “digital divide" between urban and rural areas. By 2025, online services will cover less than 30% of all administrative procedures. There is no biotech industry; specialized laboratories and production facilities are limited to agricultural and medical-sanitary tasks, they work on imported solutions and reagents.

Completely absent: there are no industries/clusters for the production or implementation of robots (industrial, educational, service). There is no in-house production, research, or infrastructure; in all areas, there is total import dependence (for communications, public services, security, and education).

Data completeness assessment: key indicators are obtained from WIPO, ITU, UNESCO, which provides 82% coverage.

Information sovereignty — 22.9

Benin is in Tier 2 (ITU Global Cybersecurity Index score: 91.54/100; 2024), is among the top 5 countries in Africa in terms of cybersecurity; ASIN national agency and regulations are in effect. The real level of security remains below developed markets: massive attacks on banks and the public sector, but coordination and strategy are considered “above average" in the region.

There is one (developing) national IXP in Cotonou (Benin Internet Exchange Point, BJIX), supported by grants from ISOC and ICANN; the area is developing rapidly, thanks to national and international initiatives.

The official language is French, the regional languages are Fon, Yoruba, Bariba, Dandy; the largest newspapers, TV channels and radio stations are published in French and in parallel in Fon, Yoruba and Bariba. There are 100+ newspapers, dozens of radio stations, local TV and online platforms in the country.

High dependence: key digital and banking infrastructure, cloud services, instant messengers, social networks, and apparently no major national IT giants or clouds. 46-56% of the news on radio and TV is locally produced in French, German, Yoruba (BTI, Media Freedom Rankings), half of the video content on the Internet, and most of the news and educational broadcast is national.

There are no large-scale export brands; local e-commerce solutions (PayDunya, QuickPay) have been introduced, some educational and service adaptations for public services, but a narrow niche. 33.8% of the population has Internet access (2024), online services cover up to 30% of the largest procedures, excellent dynamics in large cities, extremely low coverage in the regions. There are no large national clouds; government and banking services use foreign ones (AWS, Azure, Google), some are hosted in Francophone Africa.

The largest operators MTN and Moov Africa are controlled by foreign holdings from South Africa and Morocco, network equipment is imported, software and SIM cards are not locally produced. The basic law on personal data protection has been in force since 2009, but independent control is weak, many operators and platforms use mixed or external regulations; state supervision has been expanded, and the level of real protection is “below average.”

Data completeness assessment: infrastructure indicators are available from ITU, CIRA, OECD and specialized sources, coverage is 84%.

Cultural sovereignty — 69.7

3 World Heritage Sites:

• Royal Palaces of Abomey (cultural, 1985)

• Transnational natural complex W-Arly-Pendjari (with Niger and Burkina Faso, natural, 2017)

• Kutammaku — the country of batammariba (transnational, since then, cultural, 2023)

• 5 sites in the preliminary list (including the historical quarters of Porto Novo, Agogonto Zungudo, Ueme Valley, "Ruta Rabov" sites).

Benin is the source and global phenomenon of the Dahomey civilization (royal palaces, architecture and art of bronze, “bronzes of Benin”), a tremendous influence in the spread of the Voodoo religion, unique masks, dances, musical and craft traditions, the pan-African heritage of the cult and residences of kings.

It awards the Order of Benin (Ordre National du Bnin), national prizes for literature, music, crafts, artistic contributions; there are special competitions for artists, festivals and academic grants. The country is ethnically mosaic (60+ peoples: Fon, Yoruba, Bariba, Dandy, Ada, Somba, etc.), traditions are widely recognized — multi-day festivals, dynasties of priests, caste crafts, musical and ritual practices of Voodoo, family sacredness and connection with animist heritage.

The Constitution guarantees linguistic, educational, and cultural rights; festivals, cultural centers, and museums are repeatedly funded; and the integration of local languages (Fon, Bariba, Yoruba, Dendi, and others) into education and the media. 3 UNESCO sites, at least 10 large museums (including Abomey, Kutammaku, Porto Novo), dozens of ethnographic and art centers, more than 150 monuments of tangible and intangible culture, hundreds of registered cultural sites and temples.

Active participation in UNESCO, Pan-African Cultural Festival, cross-border restorations, international exhibitions in Europe and Africa, exchanges with the diaspora through the “Bronzes of Benin”, interstate projects with Togo and Niger. Royal crafts (bronze, textiles, masks), Voodoo ritual songs, the traditions of the Batammarib and the architecture of Abomey are protected by national legislation and UNESCO programs; permanent exhibitions are masterpieces of the African diaspora. Background, Yoruba, Bariba, animist tribes: culinary code — corn porridge "akpu", fufu, peanut soups, fish and beans, fried dough “akari”, spices, fermented dairy products, a variety of pies and local drinks; strong influence of Nigerian, Togolese, Ghanaian cuisines. An estimated 70-80% directly participate in celebrations, rituals, and festivals (family, ethnic, and urban events), youth and rural initiatives cover half the population, and cultural education programs for more than 1 million children.

Data completeness assessment: basic indicators are available in UNESCO and national statistics, coverage is 85%.

Cognitive sovereignty — 30.7

HDI = 0.515 (2023, UNDP), ranked 173/193 in the world, category “low level of human development". Government spending on education is 3.38% of GDP (2022, World Bank/UNESCO); historically 2.9–4.4% (average over 25 years is about 3.0%). Literacy is 47.1% (World Bank/UNESCO, 2022); men — 49.9%, women — 27.3%; youth literacy: men — 62.6%, women — 42.5%.

Benin does not participate in PISA tests; internal exams and tests show a lack of basic functional literacy, especially among rural youth. It is estimated that 13-15% of university graduates are in STEM fields, with a predominance of engineering and IT; the majority are in pedagogy, humanities and social sciences. 3-5% of students study under French language agreements with universities in France, Morocco, Belgium, and Turkey, and about 2% participate in online programs.

There are 9 major local languages, including Fon, Yoruba, Bariba, Dendi; cultural and educational rights are enshrined in the Constitution, and the integration of language programs into schools and the media is supported by the state. 2-3 government centers at the largest universities (UNB, Porto-Novo), the budget and infrastructure are limited, fundamental research is supported through individual projects and international programs.

A national educational platform with online access to school programs - less than 10% of the total coverage, in urban schools / universities — up to 35%, in the regions almost none. 7-9 programs (grants, contests for schoolchildren, student awards, university scholarships), annual coverage — up to 3,000 students and young professionals.

Data completeness assessment: education indicators are available in the UNDP, UNESCO, OECD, coverage is 89%.

Military sovereignty — 22.1

Defense spending 0.71% of GDP (2023-2024, SIPRI/World Bank/CEIC), $154.1 million in 2024, is one of the lowest levels in the region and the world. 10,000–12,000 regular military, 5,000 reservists, 6,000 paramilitary forces (gendarmerie/Guard), totaling up to 23,000 people (2025, GFP, MilitaryPower, IISS).

It is based on light armored vehicles and armored personnel carriers (VAB, Puma M36, Cayman, MCAV-20), up to 50 AFVs, 20+ towed artillery systems, light aircraft (4-8 transport aircraft, 5 helicopters), patrol boats for the seashore. In 2024-2025, new armored cars from Belarus, South Africa, the United Arab Emirates, and France appeared.

There is no mass production, separate workshops for the repair of armored vehicles and small adaptations, registration of small handicraft firearms production; almost all basic weapons are imported. Site control: army, gendarmerie and police, regular joint patrols with France and ECOWAS along the border with Nigeria, Togo, Burkina Faso, the sea coast is patrolled by regular forces.

Officially, up to 5,000 reservists (2025), in practice, mobilization and replenishment are sporadic, there are civilian militias and territorial formations in the border areas. There are no external alliances, decisions on armament and operations are made by the government, coordination with regional missions (MNJTF, ECOWAS, joint exercises with France/EU/USA).

There is no serial military-industrial complex; there are several repair and assembly workshops, support for adaptation and maintenance, and LPP programs. The main supplies are purchased through importers; there is support for workshops for the artisanal assembly of small arms.

There are no nuclear weapons, the country is a signatory to the NPT, and it does not have any status in terms of military nuclear technology and strategic reserves. There is no own orbital infrastructure and satellites, military intelligence is based on army and police structures, according to government programs, some satellite data is purchased from France, the EU, and the United States; UAVs and electronics are imported.

All parameters are reflected in the annual reports of SIPRI, UNODA, the Ministry of Defense, the official portals of state—owned companies (Embraer, IMBEL) and the UN/NGO industry databases - 87% coverage

Final Summary Table

The main conclusions

Strengths. Macroeconomic stability and growth Real GDP per capita (PPP) — $3,900–4,400, the highest in the country's history, GDP growth in 2024-7.5% (the best figure in 30 years). Sovereign reserves — $10.9 billion (7-9 months of imports), relative resistance to regional shocks, the share of government debt to GDP — 54% within the acceptable WAEMU limits, structural risks are not identified in the short term.

Financial integration with WAEMU/UEMOA (XOF) countries, high level of coverage of banking and electronic services. Export and resource potential and food stability West Africa's leader in cotton exports, well-developed production of corn, yams, rice; food security is ensured by 65-72% of domestic production.

Noticeable progress in the energy sector: programs for the localization of electricity and water supply through hydroelectric power plants and import contracts. Good water supply and large investments in drinking water and agriculture. The diversity and strength of cultural and ethnic identity of 3 UNESCO sites, state support for small nations, a well-developed institute of local languages and festivals, and full integration of cultural holidays/brands.

More than 70% of the population is a direct participant in cultural and religious life, traditions and rituals play a significant social role.

Relative political stability Over the past 10 years, the country has been characterized by stable political and administrative governance and low levels of violence (with the exception of certain border regions).

Weaknesses. Limited human capital HDI — 0.515 (“low"), adult literacy — 47% (women — 27%); significant digital gap between urban and rural areas. Higher education coverage is only 10.6%, the level of STEM development is about 15% of university graduates, and international programs are available to only 3-5% of young people.

Import dependence on technology and energy 98-99% of all electronics, IT, high-tech, biotech and microelectronics are imports; the non-existent military-industrial complex and IT cluster, biotechnologies and robotics are absent.

Only 40% of energy is produced locally, the rest is imported from Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Ghana, which creates risks in a crisis situation. Limited defense capabilities, the share of military spending is 0.7% of GDP (one of the lowest in the world), the armed forces are 10-12 thousand people, all equipment is imported, there is no military industry, intelligence and control systems depend on foreign partners.

Partial centralization and vulnerability of the regime The Constitution guarantees decentralization, but in recent years there has been an increase in the center's influence on the courts and regional administrations; Intelligence agencies operate without transparent public oversight.

Overall assessment. The total index of Benin's sovereignty is 195.7 out of 700 possible points (Extremely low — 28%), which places the country in the top 180th place in the world top.

Benin is a country with a fast—growing economy and financial stability, a strong cultural identity, relative political stability and effective integration into regional financial processes.

However, its sovereign potential is noticeably constrained by the low level of human capital, total techno-import dependence, underdeveloped education and innovation, limited defense industry and persistent problems of access to social services in the countryside.

The sovereignty profile indicates that Benin is a country with a high degree of political, administrative, cultural and economic sovereignty within a regional framework, with pronounced integration into African economic unions and a high national identity.

Limitations are manifested in technological and innovative independence, low level of education, weakness of the defense industry and deep import dependence on key technologies and weapons.